African Journal of Science, Technology and Social Sciences

Participatory sensing in Kenya :

Dorothy Mwongeli Kalui — 2025-08-17

An increasing number of participatory sensing applications have been developed in recent years. Since these applications can be used for personal and community levels to address real world problems, the players of location based services (LBS) are already exploring their environment. One approach could be to especially address these users’ necessary preconditions for successful implementation in order to increase the Kenyan user base of participatory sensing applications. To achieve this objective, a number of earlier related studies were reviewed with a view of identifying factors affecting successful implementations in Kenya for use in the study. To this end, we conduct a questionnaire-based study involving 100 participants to investigate the possible key preconditions necessary for successful implementation of LBS. In particular, we analyze the potential interests of our participants in sensing tasks based on their demographics and interaction with sensing applications. It results to proposed preconditions of successful implementation in Kenya. The identified preconditions are tested statistically using correlation and regression analysis. The findings based on Pearson correlation analysis (coefficients above 0.8) indicate the preconditions have strong linear relationship and recorded p-values of less than 0.05 meaning that their contribution is significant to successful implementation in Kenya.

The Technologies used in sanitation delivery in Mukuru kwa Reuben, Kenya

Erick kiprono — 2025-09-24

ABSTRACT

The Sustainable Development Goals agenda 6.2 aims to improve access to safely managed sanitation by 2030. However, the sewer system serves only 17 % of the Sub-Saharan African population in informal settlements. Possible interventions and options to address sanitation issues in informal settlements have been advanced through research. However, upscaling and improving sanitation in informal settlements has been a challenge. The study investigated the technologies used in sanitation delivery in Mukuru Kwa Reuben. The study employed a descriptive survey design. The unit of analysis was the household level. The target population comprised the household heads involved in sanitation service provisions. Cluster and simple random sampling techniques enrolled 100 household heads from 10 clustered administrative units. Data from the questionnaires and structured observations were analysed using SPSS version 25, employing both descriptive and inferential statistics at a 5% significance level. The sanitation technologies for containment and storage of excreta/sludge included pit latrine, fresh life toilet, pour flush, cistern flush, and composting toilet. In emptying and transportation, eco bags, washing machines, transfer stations, buckets, urine containers, hand carts, trucks, and sewers were used. The excreta/sludge treatment/disposal options encompass treatment plants, septic tanks, open grounds, rivers, and landfills. There was a moderate positive correlation between accessibility and the construction/installation process of the toilet (r = .546, p < .001). There was statistically significant variation in the provision of sanitation technologies for emptying and transportation of sludge/excreta concerning accessibility (p = 0.013), availability (p = 0.047), and accountability (p < 0.001). The study concludes there was significant variation in the type of sanitation technology used and its construction/installation process, which influenced the affordability, accessibility, and availability of sanitation technologies. The study recommends upscaling of composting toilets, sewers, and treatment plants.

Evaluation of onsite Sanitation Technologies using a Shit Flow Diagram at Iten Municipality Elgeiyo-Marakwet, Kenya

Cynthia Jelagat Kiprop — 2025-09-24

Ensuring access to safe sanitation in developing countries remains a significant challenge, contributing to public health and environmental problems. Although various interventions have been implemented to tackle these issues, their effectiveness in managing human excreta along the sanitation service chain is still uncertain. This study aimed to assess onsite sanitation technologies in Iten Municipality by utilizing a shit flow diagram (SFD). A mixed method approach was employed, involving quantitative and qualitative data collection. A sample size of 388 household heads was determined using the Yamane formula and selected through a cluster random proportionate sampling technique. Quantitative data was gathered via household survey, while qualitative data was obtained through key informant interviews, site visits, and transect walks. The quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS version 26, while qualitative data was organized into themes and presented in narrative form. The Susana platform and the SFD tools facilitated further data analysis and the creation of the shit flow diagram. The findings revealed that the primary onsite sanitation technologies in Iten are pit latrines (69.1%), septic tanks (22.9%), and anaerobic digesters (2.9%). The study identified hygiene issues and found that approximately 64.6% of onsite systems malfunctioned. Additionally, about 31% of execrate was inadequately managed, including pits and tanks that were not emptied, overflowing, leaking, or discharging into the environment (15%), emptied but not delivered to treatment (11%), fecal sludge and supernatant delivered to treatment but not treated (1%), and open defecation (3%). The onsite sanitation technologies in the municipality face considerable challenges, underscoring the need for better management and regulations. The study recommends enhancing sanitation infrastructure, implementing standardized maintenance protocols, and providing community education to improve waste management and public health outcomes.

The Influence of school libraries on overall performance in Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) in day secondary schools in Municipality Ward, Meru County

Paul Mutethia — 2025-08-17

This study investigates the influence of school libraries on overall performance in the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) in day secondary schools within Municipality Ward, Meru County. The research addresses a critical gap in understanding the impact of library resources and utilization on academic success in this context. With a focus on four day secondary schools: Kinoru Secondary School, Meru Muslim Day Secondary School, CCM Township Day Secondary School, and Mwithumwiru Day Secondary School. This study will be guided by resource based learning theory and constructivism learning theory. The Resource-Based Learning Theory emphasizes that access to diverse educational materials enhances learning, while Constructivist Learning Theory highlights active, self-directed, and collaborative knowledge construction. Together, these theories suggest that well-equipped and effectively utilized school libraries significantly improve students' KCSE performance. The study employs qualitative methods, including interviews and observations, to gather data from head teachers and teachers in charge of libraries who are informants in this study. In this study the sample population will be 8 respondents, out of which 4 will be the headmasters of those day secondary schools and the other 4 will be the teachers who are in charge of the schools libraries. The findings reveal a significant positive correlation between the availability and adequacy of library resources and students' KCSE performance. Pearson's correlation coefficient quantify the relationship between library resources and KCSE performance, with a strong positive r value of 0.75 indicating that better-equipped school libraries significantly enhance students' KCSE scores in day secondary schools in Municipality Ward, Meru County. Effective measures, such as extended library hours and collaborative teaching strategies, enhance the accessibility and relevance of library resources. Regular collaboration between teachers and teachers in charge of libraries is pivotal in integrating library activities with the curriculum, thereby supporting students' academic endeavors. Despite challenges like insufficient funding and limited resources, schools employ various strategies to overcome these barriers, including seeking external funding, updating collections, and forming community partnerships. Monitoring and evaluation practices indicate a positive correlation between regular library usage and higher KCSE performance. The study underscores the importance of continued investment in library resources, infrastructure, and collaborative efforts to further strengthen the impact of school libraries on academic success in day secondary schools in Municipality Ward, Meru County

Key words: school libraries; performance

Assessment of suitability of slum toilets for use by women and children on promotion of inclusive sanitation: A mixed methods study in Nakuru, Kenya

Lilian Mukiri Kirimi — 2025-08-17

Women and children encounter challenges in accessing sanitation services. Unless user-friendly designs are adopted for toilets, those living in slums could have difficult choices of excreta management. The study examined suitability of toilets for use by women and children on promotion of inclusive sanitation in a selected slum in Nakuru, Kenya. The study used convergent design. Quantitative data was gathered using structured questionnaires from 100 household heads sampled using proportionate simple random technique. An observation checklist was used to ascertain toilets’ status and suitability for use by women and children. The data was analyzed in descriptive and logistic regression statistics. Data gathered using focus group discussions was analyzed thematically and findings presented in narratives. The study established that use of toilets by women was compromised by inadequate maintenance, privacy, safety and hygiene provisions concerns. Chances of open defecation were 63.7% lower for women who did not fear visiting toilets at night than for those who did and 45.2% lower for women who accessed clean toilets (p<0.05). The likelihood of being comfortable with toilets was 3.664 times higher for women who accessed toilets located near households, 6.75 higher when they considered toilets as safe for use at night and 7.057 times higher with access to toilets that maintained privacy (p<0.05). Although water was apparently available as supplied by the Water and Sewerage Company, handwashing for women was minimal as the facilities mostly lacked water. Children were escorted by caregivers to toilets as they could not reach the door latches. Distance to toilets for children stood out as a significant factor that discouraged them from using toilets (p<0.05). Hand hygiene for children was minimal due to absence of handwashing facilities, or when present, positioning of the facilities at higher heights than children could reach. The study concluded that sanitation vulnerabilities in slums are amplified by provision of gender and age-non-responsive sanitation and hygiene facilities. Sanitation programming in slums should incorporate a gender and social lens to promote sanitation inclusivity for women and children. Involvement of women in planning processes of sanitation options in slums could be a worthwhile strategy of ensuring that their needs and the needs of their children are adequately addressed.

Role of societal norms in raw sewage disposal in water sources, Mukuru slums, Nairobi County, Kenya

Audrey Nasirumbi — 2025-08-17

A sustainable sanitation system is economical, socially acceptable, and environmentally friendly. Raw sewage disposal into water sources is a significant environmental and health concern in many informal settlements in Kenya. Inadequate access to proper sanitation facilities leads to water source contamination. Despite the severe environmental and health impacts, there is limited knowledge about the factors influencing these practices. Therefore, this study`s specific objectives sought to determine the role of societal norms influencing the discharge of raw sewage into water sources in Mukuru slums, Nairobi, Kenya. A cluster proportionate random sampling was used to identify household heads, while key informants were purposively selected. A quantitative study of 246 household heads was conducted using structured questionnaires and analyzed using the Pearson Chi-Square Test at 95% Confidence Interval. Qualitative data collected through FGDs, and KIIs, was transcribed and manually presented in narratives. The study findings revealed that 96.1% of raw sewage was discharged into water sources while 87.7% of the participants witnessed raw sewage disposal practices. Raw sewage disposal had influenced societal norms such as belief that played a role in 85.1% of cases (p=0.046). The study concluded that poor societal norms contributed to raw sewage disposal into water sources. The study recommended community to educate her residents on values such as beliefs, collective responsibilities, the presence of social networks, proper communication, cooperation, and coordination to prevent raw sewage disposal in the area and create an enabling environment for all.

The influence of family background on academic performance of Persons with Disabilities in Special Schools in Meru County, Kenya

Amos Chege Kirongo — 2025-08-17

This paper presents a focused examination of the influence of family background on the academic performance of Persons with Disabilities (PWDs) in special schools within Meru County, Kenya. The academic performance of PWDs in special schools is influenced by a range of factors, including family background. By studying the specific case of Meru County, Kenya, this research seeks to explore the unique challenges and opportunities that PWDs face in this region and how their family environment can impact their academic achievements. Family support and involvement have been identified as crucial determinants of academic success for people with disabilities. Positive family environments, characterized by supportive parents and engaged family members, create a conducive atmosphere that fosters self-esteem, motivation, and academic self-efficacy among PWDs. Conversely, negative family backgrounds, such as limited resources, low socioeconomic status, and lack of familial support, can hinder the academic progress of PWDs. Cultural attitudes, societal stigma, and discrimination towards disabilities can impact the educational opportunities and experiences of PWDs, consequently affecting their academic performance. Understanding the influence of family background on the academic performance of PWDs in special schools in Meru County is vital for designing effective interventions and support systems. By recognizing the importance of family involvement, providing targeted resources and support services, and promoting positive attitudes towards disabilities, educators, policymakers, and stakeholders can work towards creating an inclusive educational environment that maximizes the academic potential of PWDs.

The influence of social factors and status of faecal management facilities on human faecal management in Changamwe Sub-County, Mombasa County, Kenya

Onesmus Kiambi — 2025-08-17

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agenda 6.2 focuses on ensuring that human faecal matter is safely managed for improved human health. Although efforts to improve sanitation standards such as provision of excreta management facilities, community education programs, and construction of sewerage systems have been made, excreta management still remains poor especially in areas with high population. The study examined the influence of social factors and status of faecal management facilities on human faecal management in Changamwe Sub-County, Kenya. Convergent design with a mixed methods approach was used where quantitative and qualitative data was gathered simultaneously. Structured questionnaires were used to gather quantitative data from 397 household heads selected using cluster and proportionate simple random sampling techniques. The data was analysed in both descriptive and inferential statistics. Qualitative data was obtained from a focus group, analyzed thematically and presented as narratives. Results showed that toilet sharing between gender and in-laws affected toilet use. Residents believed that handling of feaces was unclean which restricted proper management of faeces on filled up toilets. Children were more likely to defecate in the open compared to adults because they feared collapsing inside the scary huge toilet holes. Findings showed that beliefs and age were significant predictors of human faecal management practices. Due to lack of education or knowledge on safe management of faeces, residents disposed of faecal matter in open drains which contaminated the environment. Toilet sharing across in-laws of opposite gender was a taboo. The characteristics of more than 50% of toilet facilities were gaps around the walls, lack of lighting, flies and bad smell. Respondents highlighted that emptying of full pits was a challenge due to narrow apertures and poor status of the slab which could not permit removal of faeces from pits. Observation findings also revealed evidence of faeces left in the open. A unit improvement in status of faecal management facilities improved human faecal management by 0.922 units (p-value=0.000). The study concluded that human faecal management in Changamwe was poor due to social factors and status of faecal management facilities among other factors which require exploration. The study recommends the need for initiation of sustained social interventions by both the government and non-governmental organisations so as to facilitate behavioral change which can have substantial influence on human faecal management. The study also recommends the need for sanitation infrastructural development by the County Government of Mombasa particularly in densely populated areas to improve their faecal management practices.

The bare minimum: satisfaction of sustainable development goal Target 6.2 by sanitation provisions in institutions of higher learning in Tigania West, Meru County

Jesse Macintosh Okowa — 2025-08-17

Separation of human excreta from further contact with the environment has drawn universal attention through the SDGs which approach the provision of safely managed sanitation on SDG 6. Open defecation is the least sanitary option of waste elimination while safely managed sanitation where the waste is contained and treated/disposed is the most sanitary approach. As of 2020 the African population reached 1.3billion with 1.039billion lacking basic sanitation and 208million engaged in open defecation, 27% of the people had safely managed sanitation outside institutions. In Kenya, urban coverage of basic sanitation for 2015 – 2022 was 30% while safely managed sanitation was absent in the same area. Meanwhile, rural coverage of safely managed sanitation held at 25% with 2% coverage for basic sanitation. Thus, there was a demand to visualize the status of sanitation in vulnerable communities as the SDG window neared its end. A closed ended structured questionnaire to be self-filled was developed looking to assess the fulfillment of SDG target 6.2 by non-resident student housing and proportionately distributed to all institutions of higher learning in Tigania West targeting only non-resident students. Data analysis was performed by the principal investigator through categorization and comparison against real world statistics and targets as outlined by the Joint Monitoring Program. Findings indicated provisions were mainly shared with hand wash sinks largely missing. Dissatisfaction was higher with adequacy and availability of the sanitation provisions more than access to the provisions. This preempted the unsettling reality that the goals would not be actualized and that most people would be left behind on the continent. Such as it were, the study recommended for the actualization of targets, that sanitation provision be pursued over sustained blaming the vulnerable population for not engaging in practices beyond their reach.

The role of citizen journalism in documenting and reporting climate change and adaptation efforts

Mildred Zipporah Mwendwa — 2025-08-17

Citizen journalism has emerged as a pivotal force in documenting and reporting climate change and adaptation efforts. This phenomenon leverages the accessibility and immediacy of digital platforms, enabling ordinary individuals to contribute valuable data and narratives that complement traditional media and scientific discourse. This paper explores the multifaceted roles of citizen journalists in climate change documentation, highlighting their contributions to raising awareness, providing real-time data, influencing policy through grassroots engagement and fostering community resilience. By leveraging social media platforms and digital tools, citizens can document environmental changes and share local adaptation strategies. This paper, therefore, examines case studies, highlighting the effectiveness and challenges of citizen journalism in climate reporting. It concludes with recommendations for enhancing the credibility and impact of citizen-driven climate narratives. The study is grounded in the theories of participatory communication and the public sphere. Participatory communication theory posits that inclusive and active involvement of community members in communication processes leads to more democratic and effective outcomes. This aligns with the role of citizen journalism, where community members actively document and report on climate change. The public sphere provides a framework for understanding how citizen journalism creates a platform for public discourse, enabling the exchange of ideas and fostering democratic engagement in climate change discussions. The study will adopt a descriptive survey design using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Data will be collected using Focus Group Discussions (FDGs), Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), Questionnaires, Observations, Secondary Data, and Digital Data Analysis. Data will be analysed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The study acknowledges numerous potential limitations, such as generalizability, since findings may not be generalizable across different contexts due to cultural, social, and environmental differences. Transferability of findings may be limited by a lack of infrastructure, internet accessibility and community engagement levels. The findings will be disseminated through learned conferences, seminars, and workshops.

Effects of institutional characteristics on the performance of climate change adaptation projects in Kenya

Violet Murungi — 2025-08-17

Climate change poses a major threat to Kenya’s socioeconomic development, particularly in sectors like agriculture. Consequently, a number of climate change adaptation projects have been implemented across the country. However, these efforts have not shown results of community impact. The objective of this study was to establish the effect of institutional characteristics on the performance of climate change adaptation projects in Kenya. Both quantitative and qualitative methods were used to analyse data. The target population was climate change adaptation projects in Marsabit and Isiolo counties, Kenya, with a total of 2,021 target population. Using Slovin’s Formula, a sample of 334 respondents was derived. Data collection tools included interviews with key informants, questionnaires for beneficiaries, and field observations. Data was analysed using SPSS and Microsoft Excel. A positive correlation was found between stakeholder participation and project performance (correlation = 0.531, p=0.000). The regression analysis indicated a statistically significant effect (F = 97.929, p = 0.000) with a coefficient B1=.199, which suggests that institutional characteristics positively influence project performance. The study concludes that sound institutional characteristics are a critical factor in enhancing the performance of climate change adaptation projects. It recommends the cultivation of transformative leadership styles, the adoption of project implementation structures with a clear flow of command, and the use of communication technology in the implementation of the projects.

Influence of parental participation in school management on academic performance in Catholic-owned schools

Rebecca Mwonjiru Munya — 2025-08-17

Parental involvement is a recognised factor in students’ academic success, yet its influence through school governance structures in faith-based institutions remains under-investigated in Kenya. This study explores the relationship between parental participation in school management and academic performance in Catholic-owned primary and secondary schools in Isiolo County. The primary objective was to determine how parents’ involvement in school governance, through roles in Boards of Management (BOM), Parents Associations (PA), and school management committees, influences students’ performance in national examinations. A descriptive survey design was adopted, targeting a population of 1,745 stakeholders. A sample of 224 participants was selected, comprising BOM and PA members, school managers, students, head teachers, and an education secretary. Although purposive sampling was employed due to the study’s focus on Catholic-owned schools, the concentration of such institutions in the area supported representativeness. Data collection involved structured questionnaires, interviews, observations, and document analysis of KCPE and KCSE results from 2008–2012. Academic performance was analyzed in relation to school-level governance practices, while efforts were made to account for confounding variables such as school size, location, and resource availability. Findings revealed that while all schools had active, only 25% of parents participated in funding or strategic initiatives. Most PA meetings focused on discipline, motivation, and academic issues, yet participation in decision-making on school projects and resource allocation was minimal. Schools with structured parental engagement reported improved monitoring of academic progress and communication practices. However, challenges such as student indiscipline (53.33%) and parental apathy (26.67%) hindered broader involvement. The study found a modest correlation between parental participation in school governance and improved academic oversight, though causality could not be definitively established due to the multifactorial nature of academic achievement. The study concludes that while parental involvement exists, its impact is constrained by limited roles in strategic planning and resource mobilisation. It recommends the development of inclusive frameworks and policies that empower parents as active contributors to governance in faith-based schools. These findings offer context-specific insights into participatory governance and its potential in enhancing educational outcomes in marginalised settings.

Influence of financial accessibility on the financial performance of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Kenya

Cecilia Ndunge Waweru — 2025-08-20

Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) form the backbone of Kenya’s economy, yet many continue to struggle with financial accessibility. Financial accessibility, defined as the ease with which SMEs can obtain financial services, plays a pivotal role in determining their performance. Despite growing interest in SME financing, empirical findings remain scattered and inconclusive. This systematic review consolidates existing literature to evaluate how financial accessibility influences the financial performance of SMEs in Kenya. The objective of this review was to critically assess and synthesise empirical evidence on the relationship between financial accessibility and the financial performance of SMEs in Kenya, with the aim of identifying key factors, trends, gaps, and policy implications. A systematic literature search was conducted across databases including Google Scholar, ResearchGate, JSTOR, and university repositories, focusing on peer-reviewed articles, theses, and grey literature published between 2013 and 2025. The review followed PRISMA guidelines to ensure transparency and replicability. Inclusion criteria required studies to focus on financial accessibility (e.g., access to credit, banking services, mobile money) and measurable financial performance indicators (e.g., revenue growth, profitability, return on investment). A total of 32 relevant studies were selected and thematically analysed. The review revealed a consistent positive correlation between financial accessibility and SME financial performance. Access to formal credit and digital financial services emerged as the most influential factors. However, challenges such as high interest rates, collateral requirements, and limited financial literacy were found to hinder the full utilisation of accessible financial services. Notably, SMEs in urban areas reported better financial outcomes than their rural counterparts, indicating geographic disparities. Financial accessibility significantly influences the financial performance of Kenyan SMEs, particularly when supported by enabling regulatory environments and financial literacy. However, structural and contextual barriers continue to limit the potential benefits for many enterprises. Policymakers should prioritise reforms aimed at lowering borrowing costs, expanding credit guarantee schemes, and promoting financial education for SME owners. Future research should focus on sector-specific and gender-based analyses to better understand subgroup dynamics. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of over a decade’s worth of evidence on financial accessibility and SME performance in Kenya, offering an updated perspective and identifying underexplored areas such as digital finance adoption and regional inequities.

Agrochemical use patterns among fresh produce farmers in Nakuru County, Kenya: Examining the instigators

David Kirongo — 2025-08-17

Agriculture is the most important economic activity in Kenya, despite only 10.2% of the total land cover being arable. The agriculture sector contributes 51 percent of Kenya’s GDP, 26 percent directly and 25 percent indirectly, accounting for 60 percent of employment and 65 percent of exports (KNBS, 2024). To achieve optimal production in the agricultural sector, agrochemicals play a significant role. On average 12,983 tons of agrochemicals are imported in to the country annually with a total value of KES 10.7 billion. More agrochemical volumes are required over time resulting in a vicious cycle between agrochemical use dependency and worsening health and climatic conditions. This study sought to determine the agrochemical use practices among Fresh Produce Farmers in Nakuru County, Kenya and their drivers. The study design was a community based cross-sectional analytic and descriptive study. The target population included Fresh Produce Farmers residing in Nakuru County for at least two years routinely applying agrochemicals in their daily occupational activities. A two-stage sampling technique, using probability proportional to size (PPS), was applied to select four sub-counties: Njoro, Kuresoi North, Molo, and Bahati. A total of 388 respondents were sampled using Cochran’s formula with a 10% non-response adjustment. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires, while qualitative insights were gathered through focus group discussions and key informant interviews. Data were analyzed using SPSS v28 for descriptive and inferential statistics, and NVivo for thematic analysis.
The findings revealed a significant association between awareness of pest pressure and resistance of agrochemicals and decision-making on volume and frequency of agrochemical usage. 87% of respondents who used recommendations from experts were aware of the potential environmental impacts of agrochemicals. 72% and 48% of those who used previous experience and those using recommendations from other farmers were also aware of the potential environmental impacts of agrochemicals, respectively. Fresh produce farmers who have realized extreme weather patterns use fewer methods of applying agrochemicals. The Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Environment, Climate Change, and Forestry need to work collaboratively to support fresh produce farmers in Nakuru County in public extension services, which will play a critical role in increasing the protective use of agrochemicals. Public extension services will shift the decision-making habits of the farmers to ensure that they use recommendations from the extension services in all their farming practices.

Resource management and performance of climate change adaptation projects in Kenya

Violet Murungi — 2025-08-17

Climate change adaptation has emerged as a crucial area of concern due to Kenya's susceptibility to climate change effects. Many climate change adaptation projects have been implemented across the country, both government and donor funded. This study examined the effects of resource management on the performance of climate change adaptation projects in Kenya. 11 climate change adaptation projects in Marsabit and Isiolo Counties, Kenya, with a total of 2,021 beneficiaries were targeted. A sample of 334 respondents was derived using Slovin’s Formula. Data collection tools included questionnaires for beneficiaries, interviews with key informants, and field observations. Data was analyzed using SPSS and Microsoft Excel. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) described the data, while inferential statistics (correlation and regression analysis) assessed relationships between variables. A strong positive correlation was found between resource management and project performance (correlation = 0.409, p=0.000). The regression analysis indicated a statistically significant effect (F = 50,355, p = 0.000) with a coefficient β = 0.393, suggesting that resource management positively influenced project success. The Adjusted R Squared attained was 0.168, which implied that resource management had a poor effect in explaining project performance. The study concludes that resource management is a critical factor for successful implementation and enhancing performance of climate change adaptation projects. It recommends that project implementers should identify, allocate and ensure adequacy of the necessary resources for implementation of projects. The study further recommends resource optimization for efficient utilization of available resources.

Knowledge, attitude, practices, and beliefs among religious leaders on uptake and adoption of routine immunization in Turkana, Samburu, Kitui, Kwale, and Garissa counties in Kenya

Mary Amatu — 2025-09-24

Vaccination remains the most effective method for controlling communicable diseases. Vaccine hesitancy due to inadequate knowledge, negative attitudes, perceptions, practices, and beliefs among religious leaders is a significant obstacle to this achievement. Engaging religious leaders in Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) can enhance vaccination coverage. This study employed a cross-sectional mixed-methods approach to investigate the knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, and practices regarding vaccine uptake among religious leaders in the selected five counties. Data were collected through structured questionnaires, and information was triangulated through qualitative data collection from key informants, including sub-county medical officers of health, health promotion officers, Expanded Program of Immunization (EPI) coordinators, and community leaders. A total of 387 respondents were sampled through stratified and purposive random sampling, yielding a response rate of 95.1%. Data were analyzed using SPSS (version 29).

The study found low knowledge, at 48%, regarding routine immunisation among religious leaders. Eighty-four per cent (84%) believed that vaccines were beneficial to society at large, albeit with low coverage. Demonstrating this, 62% (240) of the interviewees had received the first dose of the COVID-19 vaccine. However, only 29% (70) had taken the second dose. Only 20% (31) of the eligible girls had received the first dose of the HPV vaccine. Of the 20% who received the first dose, only 19.4% (5) returned for the second dose, demonstrating a negative attitude. The study indicates that religious leaders’ beliefs and attitudes significantly influenced vaccine uptake. The study recommends increased knowledge transfer at the religious congregational level by stakeholders. Secondly, stakeholders should enhance advocacy and social mobilisation efforts to promote uptake of the HPV and COVID-19 vaccine second dose. Thirdly, the Ministry of Health should strengthen collaborative and supportive linkages among stakeholders, religious leaders and the community for sustained vaccine uptake. Lastly, religious leaders should utilise scripture to promote health through routine immunisation.

Influence of environmental factors on public perception towards sewerage treatment plants in Meru County, Kenya

Raphael Kinoti — 2025-09-24

Effective wastewater management is among the Sustainable Development Goal 6.2 targets as it ensures proper disposal of wastewater, nature conservation, and promotion of health. Although Government efforts in supporting establishment of waste water treatment plants have been shown, the projects are at times rejected by the community leading to wastage of resources, unsolved sewage disposal problems, and the spread of diseases emanating from poor sewage management. This study examined the influence of environmental factors on public perception toward sewerage treatment plants in Meru County, Kenya, whose solutions have often been facing rejection from the communities. The study targeted residents around Rwanyange, Gakoromone and Maua sewerage treatment plants in Meru County, Kenya. Mixed methods approach was used with a convergent study design. A sample of 386 household heads was targeted. Cluster and simple random sampling techniques were used for selection of the areas and household heads respectively. Quantitative data was collected from households using structured questionnaires and analysed in descriptive statistics and in logistic regression using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26. Logistic regressions were carried out in univariable and multivariable tests to show the relationship between dependent and independent variables and findings presented as odds ratio with 95% Confidence Intervals (CI). Qualitative data was obtained from focus group discussions, analysed based on themes and presented in narratives. Overall, the public perception towards sewerage treatment plants was negative. Perception varied with age with people aged > 50 years being 2.78 times more likely to exhibit positive perception towards the treatment plants compared to those aged 18-28 years (P<0.05). Participants especially those who resided very near the treatment plants were concerned of the odour that resulted from the treatment plants and the impacts of the plants on soil contamination (adjusted OR=0.75, 95% CI: 0.86-3.06, P<0.001). Public notion on the possibility of the treatment plants to result in underground seepage and concerns on the quality of air due to pollution significantly lowered perception by 52% and 60% respectively (P<0.05). The study concluded that public perception towards the treatment plants was affected by participants’ concerns on their impact on the environment. The study recommends community involvement in all implementation stages of sanitation projects for increased acceptance, ownership and trust of solutions by beneficiaries. There is also need for policies that substantiate environmental awareness for sustainable solutions. A transparent process of conducting Environmental Impact Assessment of sanitation solutions in the early stages of implementation could be key in mitigating environmental issues that could likely arise as a result of establishment of the sanitation solutions.

Influence of gender in toilet access on performance of shared sanitation facilities in slums: A case of Nanyuki Slums, Kenya

Joseph Irungu Maina — 2025-09-26

The Sustainable Development Goals agenda 6 emphasizes on sanitation access alongside gender equality as a transformative strategy to improved sanitation. However, although the need for safe sanitation is a well-recognized agenda, sanitation in slums has become a global challenge with noticeable gender disparities in access to and choices of safe sanitation facilities which could present non-proportional difficult gender-related sanitation choices in slums. With the serious health consequences of poor sanitation, it is essential to understand the gender-related factors associated with ability to access, utilize and maintain shared sanitation facilities in slums. This paper examined the influence of gender in toilet access, on performance of shared sanitation facilities in Nanyuki slums. The field research employed a convergent research design where simultaneous collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data was used. A sample of 98 participants calculated using Yamane’s formula was used. The number of household heads per cluster was determined using proportionate-to-size formula Quantitative data was collected using structured questionnaires from household heads who were selected using cluster and simple random sampling techniques. The data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26 in descriptive statistics and presented in frequencies, percentages, means and standard deviations and in inferential statistics like correlations and logistic regressions to unveil relationship between variables. Qualitative data was collected using focus group discussion guides from a purposively selected group consisting of women, men, landlords, Community Health Volunteers, a Public Health Officer and a sanitation representative. The data was analyzed in themes and presented in a narrative way. Findings revealed that females were the most users of shared toilets compared to men (Adjusted OR=1.14, 95% CI: 0.05-1.92, P=0.009<0.05) because they were left at their households due to commitments of carrying out household chores when men could use toilets in their places of work. Toilets were 0.76 times less acceptable and 0.75 less preferable for females than for males. Toilet location far from households, use of toilets at night for females, access to toilets with gapped super structures, unsafe and contaminated toilets significantly reduced the odds of toilet use (P<0.05). Adequacy of toilets (adjusted OR 4.95, 95% CI: 0.98-4.40, p= 0.032<0.05), and ability to meet user needs (adjusted OR 5.73, 95% CI: 0.70-4.15, p= <0.001) increased the chances of use of shared toilets. The odds for preference of toilets significantly increased by 4.95 and 2.09 when toilets adequately addressed user needs and when they were separated by gender respectively (p<0.05). The study concluded that sanitation was among the critical issues that affected slum dwellers and its impact was disproportional to gender. The study recommended the need for provision of gender segregated data in sanitation service delivery, strengthening the role of women in leadership, the need for advocacy, community cohesion and gender mainstreaming in sanitation policies to promote gender-responsive sanitation facilities in slums.

The assessment of shallow well water quality in relation to well distance from the pit latrine

Leah Wang'ondu — 2025-08-17

Informal settlements in urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa often rely heavily on shallow-dug wells for their water supply, but the wells are susceptible to contamination from various sources because most of them lack protection. The study investigated the levels of microbial quality and physicochemical parameters of shallow wells in Moiben sub- County, Uasin-Gishu County. It employed a quasi-experimental design involving laboratory experiments. A stratified sampling technique was used where sixty-two shallow wells were sampled from the five zones. This enabled analysis. The data was subjected to ANOVA and the most probable number (MPN) method was used to identify the number of total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli. The regression coefficients showed the relationship between well distance and microbial contamination with a p-value of 0.000. This implied that the distance of the shallow well from the pit-latrine is a good measure of microbial contamination. The R squared 0.728 implies the well distance can explain 72.8% of the level of microbial contamination. Test on physical parameters showed that. R squared 0.987 implying the well distance is significantly related to contamination by physiochemical parameters. In conclusion, wells located close to pit latrines consistently exhibit the highest level of contamination highlighting the role of pit latrines as a significant source of fecal pollution in groundwater. Ensuring an adequate separation distance of 50m between pit latrines and groundwater sources is important in preventing fecal contamination. Additionally, priority should be given to awareness creation, improving sanitation infrastructure, and the construction of properly engineered latrines and sewage systems.

Assessment of fecal coliforms in Catha edulis (Khat) leaves along the value chain in Igembe South Sub-County, Meru, Kenya

Gilbert Keter — 2025-08-17

Background: Catha edulis leaves have been found to contain high levels of fecal coliforms, exceeding recommended limits for safe consumption, therefore posing a high risk of spreading bacterial diseases. The presence of fecal coliforms in these leaves is a concern for consumers and those involved in their production and transportation. Therefore, this study assessed the fecal coliform contamination rate of Catha edulis (Khat) leaves at different stages of the value chain in Igembe South Sub-County, Meru, Kenya.

Materials and Methods: This study was conducted and it involved 328 respondents from 25 locations within the Sub-County, and it adopted a cross-sectional descriptive study design involving one-time sampling of Khat leaves during farming, handling, vending, and consumption. Khat leaves were collected in aerated bags, processed, and evaluated for the presence of fecal coliforms at the Meru University of Science and Technology Laboratory. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as mean, standard deviation, minimum, and maximum and inferential statistics such as Tukey HSD with the aid of Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0. Results: Study findings from Tukey HSD revealed that handlers had significantly higher fecal coliform contamination with mean difference=0.1162; p=.000 than vendors (mean difference=0.0994; p=.002), customers (mean difference=0.1096; p=.001) and farmers having the lowest with mean difference=0.0169; p=.000. Conclusion: The study concluded that handling was the most contributing factor to fecal coliform contamination. The study recommends the need for reduce fecal coliform contamination among handlers as well as vendors, customers and farmers by improving sanitation hygiene practices such as handwashing, proper use of sanitation facilities, sanitation of surfaces and equipment and proper storage of khat leaves.

Key words; Fecal coliforms contamination, Assessment, Sanitation practices and value chain.

Characterizing natural and human-made features of sand dams in seasonal rivers of semi-arid regions in Kenya

Faith Gaceri Kigorwe — 2025-08-17

Sand dams have been broadly used as water harvesting technologies in semi-arid regions and are constructed to enhance water accessibility and availability during the dry seasons. Sand dams’ effectiveness relies on proper interactions between natural and human-made features. However, there are few studies that have documented these characteristics and elements comprehensively. This study was aimed at identifying and describing natural and human-made features with a specific focus on sand dams along River Kikuu, Makueni county, Kenya. Field observational surveys were conducted on twenty-one (21) sand dam sites. Mapping was conducted using GIS with geospatial analysis done using QGIS software. The recorded elements were sand dam wall height, sand accumulation depths, and surrounding land cover characteristics. This study reports that studied sand dams varied in terms of dam heights, length, usage and adjacent natural as well as human modifications. Interestingly, sand dams along the Kikuu Sand River in Makueni county supported diverse farming systems and ecosystem functions, acting as a big source of livelihood for the community, enhancing food security. However, it was observed that some of the sand dams faced challenges such as reduced sand accumulation as a result of unregulated sand harvesting and structural dam wall damages. Because of this, there is need for regular monitoring of the sand dams, encouraging responsible sand harvesting, and supporting communities in adopting suitable water abstraction methods that match local needs and dam capacity. The study provides basis for informing future initiatives when it comes to planning, construction, placement, and comparisons of sand dams in other arid and semi-arid regions.

Assessment of particulate matter (PM) levels in urban centers in Kenya: A case study of Meru Town, Kisumu, and Nairobi

Alex Mwololo Kimuya — 2025-08-17

Particulate matter (PM) pollution poses a significant threat to public health in urban environments worldwide. Rapid urbanization, coupled with industrial activities and inadequate environmental regulations, often exacerbate this challenge. This study investigates the extent of PM pollution in three Kenyan cities - Nairobi, Kisumu, and Meru Town - to assess their air quality and potential health risks for residents. Leveraging the high temporal resolution of Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled Optical Particle Counters (OPCs), the research collected real-time PM data across various locations within each city. Data analysis, encompassing historical information dating back to 2020, revealed consistently elevated PM levels across all study sites, exceeding the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommended air quality thresholds. These findings highlight the critical need for comprehensive air quality monitoring programs across urban centers in Kenya. By quantifying the severity of PM pollution, this research underscores the urgency for policymakers to address this public health threat. The study emphasizes the importance of implementing stricter environmental regulations and developing targeted strategies to mitigate PM emissions, ultimately promoting cleaner air and safeguarding the health of residents in Kenyan cities.

Assessment of healthcare-related factors influencing traumatic brain injury outcomes among patients at MeTRH

Faith Kinya Mukindu — 2025-08-17

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI), defined as a disruption in normal brain function caused by an external force such as a blow, jolt, or penetrating injury, remains a critical public health concern due to its complex nature and long-term impact on health outcomes. In Kenya, particularly at Meru Teaching and Referral Hospital (MeTRH), the burden of TBI continues to rise amidst limited healthcare resources. Despite the growing prevalence, few studies have examined how healthcare-related factors influence patient outcomes in referral hospital settings. This study assessed healthcare-related determinants affecting TBI outcomes at MeTRH. A cross-sectional design was used, involving a sample of 152 participants derived using Nassiuma’s formula and rule-of-thumb sampling. The sample included 84 medical records, 48 healthcare workers (specialists and non-specialists), and 20 patients attending the neurology clinic. Including patients allowed for capturing perspectives on post-discharge care and rehabilitation needs. Data were collected using questionnaires, structured interviews, and medical file checklists. Quantitative data were analysed in SPSS v27 using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and logistic regression. The reliability of the instrument was confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.825. Key findings revealed that delayed access to neurosurgical care, inadequate rehabilitation services, and lack of standardized TBI management protocols significantly influenced outcomes such as mortality, functional recovery, and quality of life. The Glasgow Outcome Scale showed poorer recovery where patients lacked timely surgery, ICU admission, or specialist follow-up. Variations in healthcare providers’ knowledge and practices further highlighted gaps in standardized care. The study concludes that availability of specialised care, emergency responsiveness, and structured rehabilitation are pivotal in shaping TBI recovery. Strengthening institutional capacity through training, protocol enforcement, and investment in neurocritical care infrastructure is essential. Policy integration of national TBI management guidelines and establishment of neuro-rehabilitation units are recommended to improve outcomes in resource-limited settings.

Inhibition of Urea Hydrolysis of Human Urine using Lactic Acid from Selected Fruit and Vegetable Waste Fermentation

Tabitha Nekesa Khamala — 2025-09-24

In Kenya, enormous amounts of fruit and vegetable waste are improperly disposed of, contributing to environmental pollution and odour. Meanwhile, urine contains nitrogen that can be used as a fertiliser, but its utility is impeded by urea hydrolysis, which causes a rise in pH, nitrogen loss, and ammonia formation. This study investigated the potential of lactic acid fermentation utilising fruit and vegetable waste to prevent urea hydrolysis, enabling nitrogen recovery. Anaerobic fermentation of selected fruit and vegetable waste was carried out in an incubator at a regulated optimum temperature of 37°C for 72 hours. The lactic acid formed was then utilised to treat urine samples for 4, 7, and 10 days. To assess urea hydrolysis inhibition, total nitrogen content was measured using the Kjeldahl method, and pH monitored with a pH meter. The results showed a considerable decrease in the stabilised urine’s pH, ranging from 6.1 to between 3.6 and 3.9. The pH for the untreated urine rose to between 7.5 and 8.5 across the days. Statistical analysis using the one-way ANOVA indicated significant difference in the pH across the days (P = 0.047). The highest total nitrogen concentration for the stabilised urine was 2450 mg/L, after seven days of treatment, demonstrating urine stability and nitrogen preservation. The total nitrogen concentration for untreated urine was approximately 607 mg/L across the days, indicating clear nitrogen loss from the original 2643 mg/L obtained in fresh urine. One-way ANOVA test demonstrated a statistically significant fluctuation in TKN concentrations over treatment durations (P = 0.021). The findings showed that lactic acid significantly suppressed urease activity, making it a cheap, ecologically friendly alternative for urine stabilisation. The results showed the effectiveness of lactic acid obtained from fruit and vegetable waste in inhibiting urea hydrolysis in urine, hence, enhancing the recovery of nitrogen nutrient.